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Meanwhile, the word toad, first attested as Old English tādige, is unique to English and is likewise of uncertain etymology. [14] It is the basis for the word tadpole, first attested as Middle English taddepol, apparently meaning 'toad-head'. [15] Taxonomy Muntz, W. R. A.; Scientific American Offprints (1964). "Vision in frogs". Scientific American. W. H. Freeman. 210 (3): 110–9. ASIN B0006RENBO. Bibcode: 1964SciAm.210c.110M. doi: 10.1038/scientificamerican0364-110. OCLC 15304238. PMID 14133069. Frogs are valued as food by humans and also have many cultural roles in literature, symbolism and religion. They are also seen as environmental bellwethers, with declines in frog populations often viewed as early warning signs of environmental damage. Frog populations have declined significantly since the 1950s. More than one third of species are considered to be threatened with extinction and over 120 are believed to have become extinct since the 1980s. The number of malformations among frogs is on the rise and an emerging fungal disease, chytridiomycosis, has spread around the world. Conservation biologists are working to understand the causes of these problems and to resolve them. Mörs, Thomas; Reguero, Marcelo; Vasilyan, Davit (2020). "First fossil frog from Antarctica: implications for Eocene high latitude climate conditions and Gondwanan cosmopolitanism of Australobatrachia". Scientific Reports. 10 (1): 5051. Bibcode: 2020NatSR..10.5051M. doi: 10.1038/s41598-020-61973-5. PMC 7181706. PMID 32327670.
Federle, W.; Barnes, W. J. P.; Baumgartner, W.; Drechsler, P.; Smith, J. M. (2006). "Wet but not slippery: boundary friction in tree frog adhesive toe pads". Journal of the Royal Society Interface. 3 (10): 689–697. doi: 10.1098/rsif.2006.0135. PMC 1664653. PMID 16971337. Marjanović, D.; Laurin, M. (2009). "The origin(s) of modern amphibians: a commentary" (PDF). Evolutionary Biology. 36 (3): 336–338. doi: 10.1007/s11692-009-9065-8. S2CID 12023942. Faivovich, J.; Haddad, C. F. B.; Garcia, P. C. A.; Frost, D. R.; Campbell, J. A.; Wheeler, W. C. (2005). "Systematic review of the frog family Hylidae, with special reference to Hylinae: Phylogenetic analysis and revision". Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History. 294: 1–240. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.470.2967. doi: 10.1206/0003-0090(2005)294[0001:SROTFF]2.0.CO;2. S2CID 83925199. If Kate and William were unable to have children and decided to adopt, would the adopted child become heir to the throne? a b Badger, David; Netherton, John (1995). Frogs. Airlife Publishing. p.38. ISBN 978-1-85310-740-5.
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The female striated frogfish does not tolerate the smaller male after fertilization, and may eat him if he stays close. [12] According to genetic studies, the families Hyloidea, Microhylidae, and the clade Natatanura (comprising about 88% of living frogs) diversified simultaneously some 66 million years ago, soon after the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event associated with the Chicxulub impactor. All origins of arboreality (e.g. in Hyloidea and Natatanura) follow from that time and the resurgence of forest that occurred afterwards. [38] [39] Very few fossil remains of frogfishes have been found. In the northern Italian formation at Monte Bolca, formed from the sedimentation of the Tethys Ocean in the middle Eocene (45 million years ago), a 3-cm (1.2in) fossil named Histionotophorus bassani was initially described as a frogfish, but was later thought to belong to the closely related extant genus Brachionichthys or handfish. In 2005, a fossil from Miocene Algeria (3 to 23 million years ago), Antennarius monodi, is the first proven fossil frogfish, believed to be most closely related to the extant Senegalese frogfish. [14] In 2009, a new fossil from the upper Ypresian Stage of the early Eocene found in Monte Bolca, Italy was described as a new species, Eophryne barbuttii, and is the oldest known member of the family. [15] Taxonomy [ edit ] Inger, Robert F.; Stuebing, Robert B. (1997). A Field guide to the Frogs of Borneo (2nded.). Kota Kinabalu, Borneo: Natural History Publications. ISBN 983-812-085-5.
Gerhardt, H. C. (1994). "The evolution of vocalization in frogs and toads". Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics. 25: 293–324. doi: 10.1146/annurev.es.25.110194.001453. a b c d e f Tesler, P. (1999). "The amazing adaptable frog". Exploratorium:: The museum of science, art and human perception . Retrieved 2012-06-04. Astley, H. C.; Roberts, T. J. (2011). "Evidence for a vertebrate catapult: elastic energy storage in the plantaris tendon during frog jumping". Biology Letters. 8 (3): 386–389. doi: 10.1098/rsbl.2011.0982. PMC 3367733. PMID 22090204.
Frogs may lay their in eggs as clumps, surface films, strings, or individually. Around half of species deposit eggs in water, others lay eggs in vegetation, on the ground or in excavations. [133] [134] [135] The tiny yellow-striped pygmy eleuth ( Eleutherodactylus limbatus) lays eggs singly, burying them in moist soil. [136] The smoky jungle frog ( Leptodactylus pentadactylus) makes a nest of foam in a hollow. The eggs hatch when the nest is flooded, or the tadpoles may complete their development in the foam if flooding does not occur. [137] The red-eyed treefrog ( Agalychnis callidryas) deposits its eggs on a leaf above a pool and when they hatch, the larvae fall into the water below. [138] a b Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.) (2009). " Histrio histrio " in FishBase. Sep 2009 version. Davies, N. B.; Halliday, T. R. (1978). "Deep croaks and fighting assessment in toads Bufo bufo". Nature. 274 (5672): 683–685. Bibcode: 1978Natur.274..683D. doi: 10.1038/274683a0. S2CID 4222519.
The origins of the word frog are uncertain and debated. [11] The word is first attested in Old English as frogga, but the usual Old English word for the frog was frosc (with variants such as frox and forsc), and it is agreed that the word frog is somehow related to this. Old English frosc remained in dialectal use in English as frosh and frosk into the nineteenth century, [12] and is paralleled widely in other Germanic languages, with examples in the modern languages including German Frosch, Norwegian frosk, Icelandic froskur, and Dutch (kik)vors. [11] These words allow reconstruction of a Common Germanic ancestor * froskaz. [13] The third edition of the Oxford English Dictionary finds that the etymology of * froskaz is uncertain, but agrees with arguments that it could plausibly derive from a Proto-Indo-European base along the lines of * preu, meaning 'jump'. [11] Tan, W.-H.; Tsai, C.-G.; Lin, C.; Lin, Y. K. (2014-06-05). "Urban canyon effect: storm drains enhance call characteristics of the Mientien tree frog". Journal of Zoology. 294 (2): 77–84. doi: 10.1111/jzo.12154. ISSN 0952-8369. Jared, C.; Antoniazzi, M. M.; Navas, C. A.; Katchburian, E.; Freymüller, E.; Tambourgi, D. V.; Rodrigues, M. T. (2005). "Head co-ossification, phragmosis and defence in the casque-headed tree frog Corythomantis greeningi". Journal of Zoology. 265 (1): 1–8. doi: 10.1017/S0952836904005953. S2CID 59449901.
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Armstrong, Cecilia E.; Roberts, William M. (1998). "Electrical properties of frog saccular hair cells: distortion by enzymatic dissociation". Journal of Neuroscience. 18 (8): 2962–2973. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.18-08-02962.1998. PMC 6792591. PMID 9526013. Kelber, Almut; Yovanovich, Carola; Olsson, Peter (2017-04-05). "Thresholds and noise limitations of colour vision in dim light". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 372 (1717): 20160065. doi: 10.1098/rstb.2016.0065. ISSN 0962-8436. PMC 5312015. PMID 28193810.
Frogs have three-chambered hearts, a feature they share with lizards. Oxygenated blood from the lungs and de-oxygenated blood from the respiring tissues enter the heart through separate atria. When these chambers contract, the two blood streams pass into a common ventricle before being pumped via a spiral valve to the appropriate vessel, the aorta for oxygenated blood and pulmonary artery for deoxygenated blood. [70] At the other extreme, the striped burrowing frog ( Cyclorana alboguttata) regularly aestivates during the hot, dry season in Australia, surviving in a dormant state without access to food and water for nine or ten months of the year. It burrows underground and curls up inside a protective cocoon formed by its shed skin. Researchers at the University of Queensland have found that during aestivation, the metabolism of the frog is altered and the operational efficiency of the mitochondria is increased. This means that the limited amount of energy available to the comatose frog is used in a more efficient manner. This survival mechanism is only useful to animals that remain completely unconscious for an extended period of time and whose energy requirements are low because they are cold-blooded and have no need to generate heat. [98] Other research showed that, to provide these energy requirements, muscles atrophy, but hind limb muscles are preferentially unaffected. [99] Frogs have been found to have upper critical temperatures of around 41 degrees Celsius. [100] Locomotion The red-legged running frog ( Kassina maculata) has short, slim hind limbs unsuited to jumping. It can move fast by using a running gait in which the two hind legs are used alternately. Slow-motion photography shows, unlike a horse that can trot or gallop, the frog's gait remained similar at slow, medium, and fast speeds. [111] This species can also climb trees and shrubs, and does so at night to catch insects. [112] The Indian skipper frog ( Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis) has broad feet and can run across the surface of the water for several metres (yards). [104] Swimming Common toad ( Bufo bufo) swimming a b Bertelsen, E.; Pietsch, T.W. (1998). Paxton, J.R.; Eschmeyer, W.N. (eds.). Encyclopedia of Fishes. San Diego: Academic Press. pp.138–139. ISBN 0-12-547665-5. R. Alexander Pyron; John J. Wiens (2011). "A large-scale phylogeny of Amphibia including over 2800 species, and a revised classification of extant frogs, salamanders, and caecilians". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 61 (2): 543–583. doi: 10.1016/j.ympev.2011.06.012. PMID 21723399.
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Hopkins, Gareth R.; Brodie, Edmund D. (2015). "Occurrence of Amphibians in Saline Habitats: A Review and Evolutionary Perspective". Herpetological Monographs. 29: 1–27. doi: 10.1655/HERPMONOGRAPHS-D-14-00006. S2CID 83659304. Hilton, Bill Jr. (1986). Jug-o-Rum: Call of the Amorous Bullfrog. Vol.1. Hilton Pond Center for Piedmont Natural History. {{ cite book}}: |work= ignored ( help) Some frogs protect their offspring inside their own bodies. Both male and female pouched frogs ( Assa darlingtoni) guard their eggs, which are laid on the ground. When the eggs hatch, the male lubricates his body with the jelly surrounding them and immerses himself in the egg mass. The tadpoles wriggle into skin pouches on his side, where they develop until they metamorphose into juvenile frogs. [180] The female gastric-brooding frog ( Rheobatrachus sp.) from Australia, now probably extinct, swallows her fertilized eggs, which then develop inside her stomach. She ceases to feed and stops secreting stomach acid. The tadpoles rely on the yolks of the eggs for nourishment. After six or seven weeks, they are ready for metamorphosis. The mother regurgitates the tiny frogs, which hop away from her mouth. [181] The female Darwin's frog ( Rhinoderma darwinii) from Chile lays up to 40 eggs on the ground, where they are guarded by the male. When the tadpoles are about to hatch, they are engulfed by the male, which carries them around inside his much-enlarged vocal sac. Here they are immersed in a frothy, viscous liquid that contains some nourishment to supplement what they obtain from the yolks of the eggs. They remain in the sac for seven to ten weeks before undergoing metamorphosis, after which they move into the male's mouth and emerge. [182] Defence The mildly toxic Ranitomeya imitator Strawberry poison-dart frog contains numerous alkaloids which deter predators.
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